Illiteracy as Third World Problem Essay

It is true that illiteracy is becoming a serious problem in industrialised nations. This is surprising as most people think that this is a problem only in under-developed nations such as in parts of Africa and India. Illiteracy is related to many other problems such as poverty, over-population and governmental corruption. Let us take a more detailed look at the causes of this growing problem in many Western nations. One of the most obvious reasons for the increase in illiteracy is the advent of television. Children no longer have to read to obtain information. Neither do they have to read to relax. Today children get home from school and go straight to â€Å"the box† to watch their favorite program. Watching television is much easier and more exciting than reading. Another reason for the increase in illiteracy is the fact that so many women work. This means that children are often alone at home and so they are unsupervised. When parents get home they are often too tired to spend quality time whit their children. It is also true that many people blame schools for the decline in illiteracy. In many countries there has been a move away from teaching basic skills such as reading and writing. There are many effects of this growing illiteracy rate. The most obvious is unemployment. This may in turn lead to alcohol and drug abuse. Ultimately the economy of the country begins to suffer and there is a drop in living standards. To address this problem, parents need to become more aware of their responsibilities and schools need to consider a change in their teaching methods. If this worsening trend is not reversed, the problem of illiteracy will become very serious.

Time and Money Management

Time and money management are integral parts of being a college student. With class, homework, and extracurricular activities, many students struggle to find enough time in the day to do everything they need to and still get enough sleep. Also, many college students are unable to manage their money while buying food and other luxuries. After reviewing the articles posted on these topics, some key ideas jumped out to help make me a more effective person. The first topic that was researched was time management.This is very important for a student to be more effective throughout their day and waste less time. Many college students have a tendency to be lethargic throughout the day and then cram their work into the night. After reading the articles on time management, the main tip to help solve this tendency is to plan your day. This will cut down on the dead time you have and will also prevent you from ever getting bored. The tips however were based upon knowing yourself including your tendencies and personality.The first step was to analyze yourself and what your goals are. By determining your goals, a person can decide how strict they want their daily routine to be and how much free time they want to allocate themself. Another tip is to identify possible time-wasters. These will change for each person but is a very helpful hint. If a person knows what their time-wasters are, they can avoid situations where they come up and also escape them easier when they are faced with a time-waster. These time-wasters include procrastination, interruptions, and lack of planning.These are all things that plague me and knowing my potential time-wasters has helped me find places to do my work that will limit my distractions. The second topic that was researched was money management. This is important for college because kids are on their own and cannot depend on their parents to track their money for them. Keeping money management tips in mind will help college students keep mon ey in their bank account and feel safe monetarily. The first tip in the article is to track your spending.This is important because many people lose track of how much they have spent and do not realize it until it is too late. The next step in managing money is getting a plan to budget your money and decide how much money will be allotted for different things. Money should be allotted for food, clothes, and hobbies or relaxing purchases such as a cd or a videogame. Another tip is to limit the use of credit cards when making purchases. Many students get in the habit of using their credit cards losing track of much they have spent.The next tips focus on realizing that you may not be able to purchase everything you want. This is tough for many people and the article suggests that even if you do make a mistake and blow your budget, just make up for it the next week. Looking ahead and saving money for bills or purchases in the future can help with money management a lot as well. The last and one of the most useful tips the article gives is recognizing how you can utilize your roommate in managing your money. You can delegate responsibilities and split expenses with your roommate as much as possible, making college much easier and cheaper.The articles posted on time and money management were very helpful. The best tip I got from the time-management article was â€Å"The 4 D’s of Time Management. † The four D’s include, â€Å"do it†, â€Å"delegate it†, â€Å"dump it†, â€Å"defer it†. Each D applies to a different situation you might encounter while trying to do work and provides a solution for dealing with it. The four D’s are easy to remember and give you basic principles to fall back on when you are faced with a distraction. The best tip I got from money management was to limit how much I use my credit card and to try and use cash more often.Studies show students spend 30% more when using a credit card becau se there is no sense of a limit like there would be if they used cash. All of these tips reminded me of the time I went out to dinner with a girl and when I tried to pay the check with my credit card, my card cancelled because I had spent all of the money in my account without knowing it. This was embarrassing and luckily I had some cash with me to pay but I learned my lesson. Now with the money management tips I have learned, this will not happen again.After reading the money and time management articles, I am more prepared to navigate through college by myself. They each gave easy tips to remember and make you a more effective manager. I would suggest these articles to all of my friends because they were helpful to me and they came from reliable sources. Most articles I came across had similar ideas but there are specific ideas that will stick to me from both articles I chose. For me, knowing my time-wasters and limiting the use of my credit card were the biggest tips I got from e ach article.

Analysis of Brand Loyalty in China’s Cosmetic Market

Analysis of Brand Loyalty in Chinas Cosmetic Market 1.0 What is cosmetic market? ‘Cosmetic’ are not strange to everyone, even though some people don’t use them. They definitely hear about them. Cosmetics were invented in thousands years ago. When cosmetics were introduced, they were considered as exclusive things used by female. In those times, only few kinds of cosmetics existed. Some people believe cosmetics are limited by some sorts such as perfume, makeup. Actually, cosmetics come in many forms. Except for perfume and makeup, they comprise of shampoo, soap, lotion and others. Cosmetics are used to care for and clean people’ body, maintain people in a well condition and enhance people’ beauty (Kumar et al., 2006). For instance, the goal of sun protection is to keep out UV and reduce the risk of getting skin cancer. In the past, men used cosmetics to dress up would be treated effeminate. Certainly, people didn’t hear about men’s cosmetic advertising. Nowadays, the reality has graduall y changed. The cosmetics have not been the patent of women. Men and kids join in group of using cosmetics. The number is increasingly growing up. Està ©e Lauder as the first women’s cosmetic companies tried to enter the male cosmetic market in 1964. After 1year trial, it came out with Aramis and an entire line for men’s skin. (Alpern) In cosmetic market, thousands of cosmetics for men and kid are available. In past ten year, cosmetic companies launched some products that were suitable for both men and women. As men customers increase, companies start to launch new product line for men. Exclusive perfume and cleansing foam were designed for men. In order to target these emerging potential customers, many cosmetic companies invest a lot on advertising through TV, beauty magazine and others. The aim of the advertisement is to convey the idea that cosmetics are not girly products. Some big cosmetic companies employ famous actors or sportsmen to promote products through po sitive imagery. It lets men believe that using cosmetics is very normal. (Souiden and Diagne, 2009) The cosmetic industry is one of the most competitive industries all over the world because more than 300 cosmetic brands exist in the market. Most of these companies utilize great number of resource in Research and development to launch new products every year in order to meet ever-changing customers’ need and demand. Innovation is fundamental to survival and success of cosmetic companies. (Kumar et al., 2006) To stay vantage point during fierce competition, cosmetic companies should create value to customers. The World’ top ten cosmetic companies are Maybellline accounting for 7.4% market share, Avon (5.4%), L’Orà ©al Paris (5.3%), Lancà ´me (4%), Clinique ( 3.6%), Revlon (3.3%), Està ©e Lauder (2.9%), Max Factor ( 2.8%), Cover Girl (2.7%) and Shiseido (2.2%) (Ejiofor, 2006). All of them seize about 40% of the market share. 1.1 Overview of cosmetic market in C hina China is the countries with the largest population in the world it makes up one-fifth of the world’s population. The population growth rate of China is 0.629% in 2008 with a current average life expectancy of 73.18. Men possess 51.8% of the total population whereas women possess 48.2%. (Nancy E, 2008) Chinese paying more attention to beauty can date back to ancientry. It has already deeply rooted in Chinese culture. In Chinese poetry and art, beauty has always been extol (Newham, 2006)

Brands Hop on the Handbag Wagon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Brands Hop on the Handbag Wagon - Essay Example The price points for contemporary brands allow their customer to make purchases more often and attractive to a wider market segment in the process. Contemporary brands also have the advantage of tailoring their products towards customer preferences unlike designer brands (Sidell, 2015). This assists the contemporary brands to consolidate their existing clients while at the same time drawing new and varied ones. A disadvantage faced by contemporary brands is the fierce competition they face from established designer brands which have had more experience within the market in relation to brand recognition and consumer loyalty. It is difficult for contemporary brands to launch new products and gain a huge market share immediately. If I was a designer for a contemporary brand, I would focus on consumer research, aesthetics, and quality of my products. Coupled with the price positioning offered by the contemporary market segment, higher aesthetics and quality would ensure that I get to grasp the attention of the market. Consumers would get to appreciate the quality and aesthetics of the bag in relation to designer brands. Consumer research would enable the designer to create a product that is in connection with the customer tastes and preferences. Sidell, M. W. (2015, March 17). Brands Hop on the Handbag Wagon. Retrieved March 17, 2015, from The New School: A University:

Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Business Management - Essay Example Google has succeeded in taking advantage of opportunities in emerging technologies. The process has involved a deliberate attempt to streamline search engines, revolutionize the advertising industry and centralize data and tools. In addition, it has embarked on a mission to digitize books and provide open source mobile phone operating system. Android has emerged as a great operating system for low-cost mobile phones. Furthermore, the organization has focused on changing the way human beings interact with technology every day. In the process, it has succeeded in creating a diverse portfolio of products that range from desktop, mobile, web and hardware products. Moreover, it has managed to be a consistent top performer in surveys on the most attractive organizations for graduates. The organization has also benefited from the ability to maintain high rates of employee retention. As a result, it has managed to utilize some of the most talented minds in the technology industry. Google is involved in a very competitive market. The plethora of products and services that it offers ensure that the organization is faced with competition from many sectors. However, the organization has managed to create new sources of competitive advantage. The new sources include integration and a keen understanding of the external environment (Foss 2012, p. 1). Google has a robust infrastructure that cannot be replicated easily by other organizations. The organization has established a strong reputation for having a vast technology infrastructure. Competing search engines such as Bingo and Yahoo would have to find a way for ensuring that the organization has the speed and comprehensiveness that it possesses. The services offered by the organization cannot be possible without its robust infrastructure. The resources make it difficult for its rivals to provide a similar service. For instance, an organization

Life is college Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Life is college - Essay Example I further hoped that, through healthy relationships both with fellow students and the faculty, I would acquire great approach in learning and handling major courses in my field of choice. To me, being able to value relations with people, time, energy, besides personal abilities is an important duty if one aims for achieving real success. It was in my hope to meet different kinds of people with whom to share ideas or insights for I hoped as well to develop my communication skills and become an assertive and competent student through the span of my college life. Aside from fruitful interactions with other individuals, friends and colleagues alike, I also expected to have a rewarding experience with the academic facilities and resources of ISU, thinking of the possible ways I could utilize them to be equipped with adequate skills and knowledge toward scholastic excellence. On the other hand, however, I was anxious of encountering difficult subjects and instructors who might fall short at teaching the class with efficient tools and methods. I know the subject areas I am often weak at and I normally struggle to cope with subject matters that seem too technical or too analytical to comprehend. Inasmuch as I can, I would typically go an extra mile of studying and asking for all the help I can obtain to prepare myself for major exams and presentations. One of my greatest fears before was being left behind and failing to get by with the mental and emotional challenge of tertiary level studies. I feared loads of curricular assignments and take-home projects that could set me in conflict with time management and especially the potential to produce something that deserves an A. I thought that if I would not be able to interact sufficiently with people due to language barrier and other factors, I might find it hard to pass and finish college with grades that mu st make my parents proud. Now that I am in the eighth week of college at ISU, I must confess

One size doesn't fit all situational approaches to leadership slp Coursework

One size doesn't fit all situational approaches to leadership slp - Coursework Example My supervisor had the expertise to use the supporting or participatory leadership approach. This was her style when handling employees who were/are in situations akin to mine. I could certainly undertake the task assigned to me, but something was holding me back from competently doing the contracted job I had. Instead of ostracizing my attitude, I was received with a friendly attitude, which I soon after came to fathom was her way of concerning herself with investigating the root of the halfhearted effort I was involuntarily putting up. It was a typical case of the M3 maturity level coupled with bouts of the D3 development levels. In complete words, I was capable of undertaking the task at hand with high competence, but was jittery about actually doing it, consequently rendering me variably committed to completing any other task handed to me. Thus by focusing less on the tasks awarded to me, she focused on the work place relationship I was going to build with her. It ensured I progre ssed from the unwilling to perform tasks and having a low commitment to being confident and proficient in any future undertakings that I received. As I progressed from a D3 category of development level to a D4 level, so did my confidence and willingness to handle any and all appropriate workload strewn my way. Not only did I not complain due to the increasing workload, I found it encouraging that the important drudgery was strutting my way. My supervisor became less frequently seen on-site. I figured it was due to the gradually snowballing workload. I was however, graced by impromptu worksite calls from her twice a week with talks about work and the occasional concern about self and the family. The third week of the same routine twice a week made me aware that it must have been a strategy of keeping an eye on me and the work I was undertaking, to ensure that everything was running effortlessly and on all cylinders. I was not really perturbed

Service Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Service Reflection - Essay Example I once worked at an after school child program where it was my responsibility to help children with their homework. Being a person without very good English skills, I was worried that the children would not understand what was being said, so I was only able to help with mathematics. Mathematics is a universal language so I thought this would make up for my lack of English-speaking skills. It was my responsibility in this role to help children achieve their greatest successes, even when the children were difficult and hard to manage. This is part of Jesus’ teaching on servant leadership: To do unto others as one would have done unto yourself. I tried to remember this when working with small children, as they need a person who is willing to provide patience and understanding even when they are naughty. By not immediately responding to my own attitudes and concerns about my own weaknesses in English teaching skills, I realized that the children had many positive qualities that would help me reach them better. If I had not drawn on these teachings provided by the Holy Bible, I would not have been able to drop my own fears about insecurity. This is why I am thankful for having servant leadership qualities that were given to me by faith and conviction. When working with the children, I realized that they had many needs. Some of these needs were emotional and others were to have help in order to give them better academic successes. Only a good leader that understands the servant leadership beliefs of religion would be able to reject their own needs in order to provide a better learning experience for the small children. When working with one specific child named Patrick, who was very difficult to teach because of his behavior and attitudes, I realized that the many lessons inspired by Jesus Christ would help me to reach him better. I suddenly realized during the experience that this child needed someone who would be tolerant

Integration of Public Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Integration of Public Schools - Essay Example This paper approves that social change, and such a drastic change at that, takes time and effort to come into place, and prove fruitful. To expect people to redesign their thinking patterns to incorporate new social laws and ideals overnight is close to a fantasy; indeed, with time, the African American population was eventually integrated into the white society, starting with the denouncement of slavery, and extending to the desegregation of the educational system. This paper analyzes the sudden movement of the African American population from the southern states into states like Wisconsin, who’s percentage of the African American population increased by six hundred percent in a span of twenty years, caused unforeseen circumstances for the white population, which often reacted violently against the integration protests. These movements were considered a matter of the southern states, and suddenly the northern states were exposed to them as well. This paper tells that the late 1900s and especially the decades of 1960s and 1970s witnessed a great upheaval in the social set up of the United States in the form of the great Civil Rights movement. Although this movement had been picking up pace since the late 1800s and the early 1900s, it wasn’t till the late twentieth century that the general public and the legal bodies of the states started considering it a poignant issue.... in the northern states at that time, as compared to the political uprisings in the south; indeed, the Civil Rights movements for the rights of the African American population commenced from the southern states, which witnessed repeated protests, movements, walks, and boycotts (â€Å"Desegregation†). The northern states provided a much more peaceful and politically tranquil environment for the African American families to settle. There was also the attraction of better educational opportunities for their children (â€Å"Desegregation†). Although the constitution had afforded ‘separate but equal’ (Riley) laws, this segregation posed a lot of hindrances in the advancement of education for the students, especially the African American students, who could only attend schools in their own neighborhoods that were secluded from the white majority areas (Riley). There was a need for integration of both communities, so that education, both in the classroom and in the playground, could be properly imparted (Riley). In light of several amendments in the constitution (â€Å"Desegregation†), the government was also beginning to view the segregation as an unconstitutional act (â€Å"New Orleans†). It was no surprise, then, that the Civil Rights movement would address the desegregation of public schools. On the other hand, there were the anti-desegregation groups, which were largely formed by the white supremacist members (â€Å"Desegregation†). It was no surprise that the white community would react against such rulings by the court. It was largely accepted as law to discriminate on the basis of color and ethnicity, as there was no constitutional ruling as yet to mark such actions as unlawful (â€Å"Desegregation†). Indeed, it was stated in the constitution of South Carolina:

Management 4900 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Management 4900 - Essay Example It should state the result, its significance and any other conclusion(s), which may be relevant. Introduction: A novel mouse mutant and the corresponding protein, mKIAA058 (in the following ‘KIAA’), was identified and further analysed. In order to understand the functions of this gene/protein, a mouse strain containing a non-functional allele (mKiAA058-; Null-allele) was successfully established. First data indicated an autosomal recessive inheritance as heterozygous (KIAA+/-) as well as homozygous knockout (KIAA-/-) animals were identified. The deficiency of this protein (‘Knockout KIAA’) affects multiple tissues, including skeletal defects (delayed/reduced development of bone and cartilage; growth retardation) as well as a progressive form of vascular degeneration. Later, a corresponding disease in humans was found in a small number of very young patients. The prospects of the patients are not clear at the time and the analysis of the mouse model may provide some hints for the severity of the disease. The analyses of the molecular mechanisms underlyi ng the disease are still ongoing and some problems and experiments linked to these studies are given in the following. Statistical tests may be used to answer some of the questions. In order to define potential effects of the presence/absence of the KIAA protein on the inheritance patterns, a number of breedings were performed. The genotypes of the parents were known and the genotypes of the litters (age: 14-16 days) were analysed by allele-specific PCR reactions. In three parallel experiments (1.1, 1.2, 1.3), crossings of 5 wildtype males (KIAA+/+) with 10 heterozygous females (KIAA+/-) were started and all litters (given as total number of mice) were genotyped and the numbers of all possible genotypes are given in the following Table 1. All tested mice appear normal and show no altered phenotype at the tested age (day 14-16). In three parallel

Education Sector Essay Example for Free

Education Sector Essay In a globalized economy with a high degree of competition among countries, the success of a nation depends on the educational level of its workforce. Technology has rapidly transformed education by extending learning space beyond the four wall of a classroom. Even though school plays the main role of education, technology offers verities of opportunities to learn more. Such as, Distance learning, online learning communities and access to vast resources and databases, etc. with the help of Information and communications technology (ICT), it allows to improve quality of teaching and learning worldwide. (Bokova, 2013) There are both positive and negative impacts due to technological advancement in education sector. Affordability: Even though developed counties are able to afford this, most of the developing countries struggle to equip the basic ICT devices. However there are things which they can afford, such as mobile phone, it would help to connect teachers, students, parents and administrators. Capacities: National policy-makers sometimes may lack to formulate ICT in educational policies. In some developing counties teaching institutes frequently lack to trainer the teachers with ICT education practices. Which would lead to less ICT education in school levels. Inclusion: People who live in rural area, disabled people typically receives low quality educations, even though they have special educational needs. Introduction of ICT would favour inclusive education and reduce inequalities. Content: there are more teaching modules available by the help of ICT. Open Educational Resources (OERs) hold significant potential to accelerate free access to knowledge and facilitae the adaptation of content to local needs and languages. Quality Assurance: ICT can help the education system to be much easier, but some developing countries still haven’t been duly reformed to embrace these new learning outcomes. And issues such as quality of ICT-based learning and safety of children online needs to be addressed. (Bokova, 2013).

Assessing the Computer Uses In Medicine Medical Essay

Assessing the Computer Uses In Medicine Medical Essay Computer uses in medicine There is no doubt that ICT is one of the latest mastered human brain does not stop this development at a certain point or area of life without the other has had this technology a significant impact and contribution of the actors in the health field, particularly in the provision of medical service and high level .. Has significant efforts to employ technology in the field of health through the integration of data, digital photos and X-ray and Telemedicine Tele Medicine. In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia state is keen to achieve the principle of equality in the provision of health services and there are significant efforts in the use of technology in the health field to provide health services to residents in remote areas to take advantage of advanced services in some major hospitals Kalmschwy Specialist, but frankly it is not employment information and communication technology in the health field is still this sector needs to be a tremendous effort and well thought out plans to provide health services using high-level information and communications technology to reach the required limit, which had hoped the citizen. Many of the health services, high-end is only available in a number of major hospitals Kalmschwy Specialist and a few people who may have the opportunity to obtain such services due to the expansion of the Kingdom and the increase in population and the lack of people who specialize in some medical fields, in addition to the lack of qualified persons in computer applications in the health field, which led to non-use of medical technology to provide health services to residents in remote areas and other reasons. I was honored by His Royal Highness Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz, may God protect him create a Sultan charitable contribution he has for the advancement of health care solution for some of the mentioned constraints through the provision of medical care and high level to achieve the principle of equality in the provision of excellent health care services to citizens regardless of their location geographical location. This is a charity providing social and health services through the methods of modern communications, and is known as the IFC has a number of programs and that the most important program Medunet where the aim of this program is to provide solutions to advanced technology such as treatment for post-b Tele Medicine and Altaim Distance Distance Learning Through this program will be health care and continuing education available through the Internet not only to those who are inside Saudi Arabia but will include the services of some Arab countries. Through telemedicine, or what is sometimes called the medicine will be able to communication in the institution of any physician contact centers of research and treatment of patients in remote locations and he can also contact doctors and experts in advanced medical institutions around the world for consultation, diagnosis and treatment. Through telemedicine can transfer and exchange of medical information between radiology and other specialists in a few seconds. In terms of distance education it provides to employees in the health field the possibility of holding seminars and conferences, regardless of their whereabouts. Telemedicine technology that enables doctors, nurses and technicians to present their research and exchange of experiences with others and reduce their sense of professional isolation. We have the specialist hospital Bmjhodat large in the area of Tal communication and distance education through the establishment of a robust system to provide medical care and providing equal opportunity in access to medical care is distinguished as the hospital by linking a number of areas in the Kingdom of the head office to give access to treatment equal to citizens, but we still need more. Overall, we need a large and urgent to establish a number of other charities that seek to achieve health equity between citizens and the support of Sultan Charity This charity As received from the material and moral support of His Highness Prince Sultan, but it will need to Alton with other parties in the exchange of experiences and knowledge and the development of cadres specialized medical and train Saudis in the field of medicine and health care and the conclusion a word of thanks and appreciation to His Highness Prince Sultan to establish such an institution of excellence in purpose and meaning and discrete service. And prayers for their employees success and our fellow health and wellness. This is the second The information of disciplines vital and important in todays world, despite being a modern shape in the world of medicine and technology. This includes several specialty areas such as telemedicine, medical decision support systems, genetic mapping techniques, electronic medical records. Began early attention to this aspect of the Kingdom through the convening of conferences and international scientific seminars held in the Kingdom or abroad, and the holding of workshops and intensive courses for doctors in this area. To shed light on this side, and explore the territory they had mined a series of questions put forward to His Excellency Dr. Nabil Ali Bin correct (Ph.D. in medical informatics), who responded by thoroughly and accurately scientific. Dr. Nabil is the first to obtain this certificate in the Kingdom, has worked in a number of scientific and educational institutions, including his work as a researcher in the Department of Medical Informatics at the Medical Center at Vanderbilt University of America, as well as e-learning in the Department of the university itself. It is also a member of several associations and scientific centers in various parts of the world. He is currently an assistant professor of Medical Informatics at the Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences King Saud University in Riyadh. It also provides a number of training courses at the global level. The happiness only Arab member of the Supervisory Committee to the World Conference on remote sensing instruments, which will be held in Malaysia this year. We raised by our questions, and was with him the following dialogue: (Riyadh Net): At the outset you could give us the definition of the area of your specialty? The medical informatics by the modern concepts at the global level, and so was the emergence of specialized courses in medical informatics during the past fifteen years only. Deals with this Specialization all computer applications in the medical field, including: techniques, practice of telemedicine, systems and electronic medical records, and the development of medical education and training-mail, and processing systems and storage of medical images, and administrative and financial systems, medical systems and decision support, medical applications of informatics in medical technology (as maps of genes), and development of medical research, and patient education programs, and programming of medical devices, standards and regulations in medical informatics. (Riyadh Net): What are the areas of teaching this aspect at the University? I taught the material relevant to specialize in the faculties of numerous university, college of Applied Medical Sciences, Faculty of Computer and Information Sciences, Faculty of Applied Studies and Community Service, King Saud University, and I hope to put the stuff of Medical Informatics, Faculty of Medicine, because the doctor is the biggest beneficiaries of this material and even more beneficiaries of the applications of this specialization. With regard to the subject of this material has been the subject of coverage of the key aspects of medical informatics and the development of practical projects enable students to practice and specialty applications. For example, we divide the students of the Faculty of Computer article to several groups, each group choose a section of the hospital, then contact the hospital and take the basic information and then design special programs for each section. The aim of this step the student to experience the atmosphere and environment of hospitals and to identify the basic requirements and the needs of hospitals to medical informatics systems. Among these projects: the radiology department, laboratory, pharmacy, nutrition, medical unit renal failure, Department of Medical Research, System expert (Expert System), appointments and reception, electronic medical records, clinic, physiotherapy clinic, Dermatology, Dental Department, orthopedics, and other . As database consolidation between these projects and so is integration, including Integration)) to be a microcosm of the hospital mail. Then been developed to operate through the Internet (web-based). Has been host to many of the companies related to medical informatics systems to display the latest hospital medical systems (HIS), and the opportunity for students to see live demonstrations of those programs and discuss the guests around. The students interact well with this step, which aims to show what is available in the Saudi market of advanced programs in this area, in addition to helping students in their projects and by reading the most famous medical systems. It is obvious to everyone that all the work needed to develop more and more effort, hoping that these materials are a useful addition to specialists in the computer and the staff in the health sector. (Riyadh Net): What is the extent of interest in what is called e-health in the world? In the UK? Started in many states to provide services of Telemedicine (Telemedicine) as a first stage in the eighties and early nineties of the twentieth century, then the evolution of this concept in the late nineties to health connectivity (Telehealth), then followed by providing more comprehensive as we have until the evolution of the concept of Telemedicine is clearly at the beginning of this century to become the e-Health (E-Health). As a result of the evolution of this concept and the need for urgent applications in health care, was formed (the International Society for e-health), a scientific organization international non-profit organization, aimed primarily to activate the applications of informatics in the health field and involving members from around the world and has a Board of Trustees also have the Assembly public with more than 70 personal universal. With regard to e-health in the Kingdom, are sufficient to refer to the President of the International Society for e-health is a p ersonal girl of the people of this blessed country, and that the first world conference on e-health held in Jeddah in 2001 and is the first conference of its kind in this large size in the region where attended by about a thousand people. Also do not forget to note the significant and pioneering role played by m Focused e-health at King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center in the dissemination of this concept through workshops and scientific conferences but also provide many services for the health sector in the Kingdom as a service of Telemedicine even culminating in the recognition by the World Health Organization at the hospital as a center supported by the Organization of Medicine communication in the Middle East. And emphasizes the establishment of the Center for Health e-King Faisal Specialist Hospital and organizing the international conference of this size and the Presidency of the World Health Organization attention and leadership of the Kingdom in general and the hospital, especially for e-health in the Middle East and the consolidation of the pillars of the health care industry based on modern technologies in the region. The hospital has developed a unique location on the Internet (Gulf Health) through which to provide medical information as comprehensive as, and allows the citizens of the Gulf States all consulting specialists in the disciplines of a variety of medical online, and participate in the site more than ten thousand doctors offering their services free to all. In this years Systems Specialist Hospital in collaboration with WHO and the UAE Ministry of Health held a conference entitled International Conference on the health of Arab 2003 in the city of Dubai, focusing on six themes important health at the level of the Arab region, namely: e-health, and robotic surgery, and common diseases, infectious diseases, and diagnosis radiation and hosted the conference 50 speakers worldwide, while the number of participants more than twenty-two thousand, representing a specialist about a hundred countries from different regions of the world. The Foundation Prince Sultan bin Abdul Aziz Charity has est ablished a program of Prince Sultan bin Abdul Aziz Medical Connections, which provides excellent services to the health sector in the Kingdom. Of that, Telemedicine services for military hospitals and other services and continuing medical education program through the site, and linking the health sectors in high-speed network, and provide organized Or e-Me to the hospitals. These efforts will contribute significantly to the development of the concept of e-health in the Kingdom to become the shining center of the e-health applications in the Middle East, God willing. (Riyadh Net): In your assessment, what the interest of doctors in the Kingdom of the Internet and computer in general? The number of doctors in the UK approximately 30 000 doctors (400 distributors government hospital and private) of whom 10 000 have a doctor to participate in the Gulf of Health site (above). In the sense that one third of doctors in the UK at least have an interest in the Internet and its applications medical contrast, we find that 78% of doctors in the United States use the Internet an average of 7 hours per day in 2001, and it should be noted that quite a few doctors have participate in the location of the Prince Sultan bin Abdul Aziz Communication medical, which includes participation in international medical encyclopedias and the new in many medical specialties, and training courses for doctors in the medical uses of the computer. In addition to Internet services available to doctors in medical libraries in hospitals and military hospitals in the National Guard and some private hospitals. There are also workshops on computer applications in the medical field in many medical con ferences and have specialized in high demand from doctors. But we must pay more attention to providing materials in the computer and its applications to medical students of the Faculty of Medicine, because they are the future doctors who will use the computers in medical practice, as they Bha Facial to the computer during their medical. Here it is worth mentioning that there are more than 22 faculty of medicine in the United States and Canada require the ownership of a computer laptop to enter the Faculty of Medicine. (Riyadh Net): To what extent are to take advantage of Telemedicine now? The objective of Telemedicine is the link between hospitals and specialized clinics and health centers in remote locations or locations where there is no specialized doctors nor patients can be moved from these sites to another site available where advanced medical service. Such as duty in remote areas, and areas of natural disasters, flights, cruises, and remote military areas, prisons, and critical situations in the home, and ambulatory cases away from medical centers. This is done by the transfer of data, voice, image and signal through the medical and telecommunications satellites. This helps to manage limited resources for medical care more effectively and reduce the cost and health risks for the transfer of patients. This gives real hope for the regions do not have enough real health care for economic reasons or geographical. And Telemedicine is used in many applications, including: service diagnosis and treatment, consulting service, medical service and medical education and training, and service management meetings between the medical departments. This does not mean that all these services available to us, for example, service diagnostic and treatment services less frequently used not only in the region but globally. (Riyadh Net): Do you consider reliable medical sites on the Internet in some cases, treatment and prescribing? Some surveys have shown that 55% (ie 52 million browser) of the total Internet users in the United States of America in 2001, online sites health in search of information and data relating to health and disease, and this means that half of Internet users have become closer to deal with the Internet as a reference important for good health, medicine and treatment. This is because in my opinion to several reasons including that the Internet allows the user does not need to disclose his identity when you search for medical advice, adding that many patients do not find the doctor enough time to discuss his health, because the doctor takes 15 minutes on average with the patient for diagnosis and treatment because of certain medical procedures and medical insurance systems, the time is not enough to educate the patient and his education. Therefore, many patients turn to Internet to search for new information about their illnesses, and methods of healthy nutrition, and new drugs and medica l drugs, and the search for other options to help them in decision-making. Studies have shown that 70% of patients affected by their decisions, including treatment they had received information over the Internet, and 50% of patients while, returned to the physician have under the guidance of a doctor new questions, and they discussed the diagnosis, and treatment methods , And 28% affected by their decisions to go to the doctor or not to go after informing them of the information on the situation from which they suffer through the Internet. All agreed that the medical information from the Internet had improved the way their interest in health care. However, the problem in my view, is the credibility of the medical sites, there is no way of knowing whether these sites are managed by specialists in their fields, and they have licenses to practice this profession, but there is no way to prosecution in the event of a medical error. One study revealed that 58% of searchers for health checking of companies, institutions or organizations that stand behind these sites in order to verify the accuracy of the information, despite the fact that 82% of Internet users in general are afraid of getting inaccurate information from the Internet. Here must be based medical and specialty hospitals to adopt reliable medical websites are providing excellent health information documented and accurate medical advice to meet the needs of patients, and that the bodies concerned are blocked medical sites that are not certified by the medical off icial. So take advantage of the technical and underestimate the risks. It was the third With the accelerating use of electronic pharmacy computer .. Near the target of the health service Abdul Rahman bin Sultan, Sultan * At the outset I want to stress that the concept Sotrha in this article are easy to be implemented, as it is not impossible or seven of the paranormal, but applied in a scientific and accurate leads to the impressive results to health care in various facets. For the technical development impact substantial and concrete to improve the level of health care in general, and to provide the means and the high pace of work and efficiency, in particular, have emerged from the use of computers in all aspects of life since the middle of the last century, and the window to say that health is still one of the pilot areas of interest with new technology and permanently connected, and in the profession of pharmacy was still the computer active role in providing a superior service to patients, Valhacb is currently being used to view the file patients health and disqualified for treatment, and printed instructions accompanying document history management of the patient, as used in medical stores to make sure to maintain acceptable levels of inventory of medicines or medical supplies and other during the period of the future and limited. Accelerate the pace of developments in computer applications in the context of over time quickly, and the requirements and business needs is increasing is the other dramatically, so has developed many medical technology firms a number of programs and useful applications in the pharmaceutical field, depending on the expertise of programmers computers as well as to consult with expertise of pharmacists. A new system .. Has developed a technology company in Chicago, USA system of exchange of the prescriptions by means of a Computer Forums (Plam-held computer) which allows the physician liberally medical panel device is then sent via Internet to the hospital pharmacy or to a pharmacy civil joint program, which chosen by the patient, and receives the prescription in the form of a specific message to the scientific names, quantities and duration of treatment, all under the cover of full confidentiality and privacy. The pharmacist will prepare the prescription before the patient arrives to the pharmacy on time. Delivery of homes, but Many of these pharmacies joint delivery of drugs to the home of the patient, during a short period, and which is calculated for this program accuracy in dispensing, and the low level of error in identifying the medication, because the doctor does not take a single name of the medicine in his hand, but writes the initials of the drug and ensures the program loader to search him and his focus and quantities required, and after approval sends the doctor, after attaching his signature mail, and it is known that the Saudi Ministry of Commerce is currently seeking a resolution to the electronic signature and that of its adoption in commercial transactions and the like.

The Biological Effects Of Ionizing Radiation Biology Essay

The Biological Effects Of Ionizing Radiation Biology Essay The biological effects of ionizing radiation are determined by both the radiation dose and the radiation quality ionization density. To understand the radiation protection concerns associated with different types of ionizing radiation, knowledge of both the extent of exposure and consequent macroscopic dose absorbed gray value, as well as the microscopic dose distribution of the radiation modality is required. The definitions of these variables are discussed below but in general to advance the knowledge of the biological effects of different radiation types one needs to know the dose absorbed, the radiation quality and effectiveness of a particular radiation type to induce biological damage. In this study the biological effect of high energy neutrons is compared to that of a reference radiation type 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays for a cohort of donors, mostly radiation workers. Comparisons are made at different dose levels in blood cells from each donor to ascertain the relative biological effectiveness of the test radiation modality against that of a recognized reference radiation (Hall, 2005). Such studies are essential to determine the radiation quality for high energy neutron sources applicable to practises in radiation protection. In some nuclear medicine applications radionuclides are used to treat malignant disease. For this the use of short lived alpha particle emitters or other radiation modalities that deliver high ionization densities in cells, are particularly attractive. This as the cellular response in relation to inherent radiosensitivity of the effected cells is thought to be more consistent compared to the use of radionuclides that emit radiation with a lower ionization density e.g. ÃŽÂ ²-particles. The relative biological effectiveness of the high energy neutrons used in this study is followed as a function of the inherent radiosensitivity of different individuals. This allows the identification of cell populations that are relatively sensitive or relatively resistant to radiation. As such research material is available to investigate cellular response too Auger electrons. The latter is known to induce biological damage akin to that of alpha particles. A short description of the physical and biological variables applicable to this study is summarised below. Ionizing Radiation The term ionizing radiation refers to both charged particles (e.g., electrons or protons) and uncharged particles (e.g., photons or neutrons) that can impart enough energy to atoms and molecules to cause ionizations in that medium, or to initiate nuclear or elementary-particle transformations that in turn result in ionization or the production of ionizing radiation. Ionization produced by particles is the process by which one or more electrons are liberated in collisions of the particles with atoms or molecules (The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements [ICRU] Report 85, 2011). Interaction of Ionizing Radiation with Matter Ionizing radiation is not restricted to ionization events alone. Several physical and chemical effects in matter such as: heat generation, atomic displacements, excitation of atoms and molecules, destruction of chemical bonds and nuclear reactions may occur. The effects of ionizing radiation on matter depend on the type and energy of radiation, the target, and the irradiation conditions. Radiation can be categorized in terms of how it induces ionizations: Directly ionizing radiation, consist of charged particles such as electrons, protons and alpha particles. Indirectly ionizing radiation consists of neutral particles and/or electromagnetic radiation such as neutrons and photons (ÃŽÂ ³-rays and X-rays). Ionising radiation interacts with matter by: Interaction with the electron cloud of the atom, or by Interaction with the nucleus of the atom. Types of ionizing radiation linked to this study ÃŽÂ ³-rays Ionizing photons (ÃŽÂ ³- and X-rays) are indirectly ionising radiation. These wave like particles have zero rest mass and carry no electrical charge. Low energy (E>2m0c2) may be absorbed by atomic nuclei and initiate nuclear reactions (Cember, 1969). The charged electrons emitted from the atoms, produce the excitation and ionisation events in the absorbing medium. Neutrons Neutrons, similar to ionizing photons are indirectly ionizing radiations; however, these particles do have a rest mass. There is negligible interaction between neutrons and the electron cloud of atoms since neutrons do not have a net electrical charge (Henry, 1969). The principle interactions occur through direct collisions with atomic nuclei during elastic scattering events. In this process, ionisation is produced by charged particles such as recoil nuclei and nuclear reaction products. The production of secondary ionising photons will result in the release of energetic electrons. In turn these charged particles can deposit energy at a considerable distance from the interaction sites (Pizzarello, 1982). Auger electrons Auger electron emission is an atomic-, not a nuclear process. In this process an electron is ejected from an orbital shell of the atom. A preceding event, e.g. electron capture (EC) or internal conversion (IC) leaves the atom with a vacant state in its electron configuration. An electron from a higher energy shell will drop into the vacant state and the energy difference will be emitted as a characteristic x-ray (Cember, 1969). The energy of the x-ray (Ex-ray) being the difference in energy (E) between the two electron shells L and K. Ex-ray = EL -EK Alternatively, the energy may be transferred to an electron of an outer shell, causing it to be ejected from the atom (Fig. 1). The emitted electron is known as an Auger electron and similarly to the x-ray has an energy: EAuger = EΆ -EB where: EΆ = the energy of inner-shell vacancy energy of outer-shell vacancy EB = binding energy of emitted (Auger) electron Auger emission is favoured for, low-Z materials where electron binding energies are small. Auger electrons have low kinetic energies; hence travel only a very short range in the absorbing medium (Cember, 1969). File:Auger Process.svg Fig. 1: Schematic representation of the Auger electron emission process, where an orbital electron is ejected following an ionization event. Dosimetric Quantities Several dosimetric quantities have been defined to quantify energy deposition in a medium when ionizing radiation passes through it. Radiation fields are well described by physical quantities such as particle fluence or air kerma free in air are used. However these quantities do not relate to the effects of exposure on biological systems (International Commission on Radiological Protection [ICRP] Publication 103, 2007). The absorbed dose, D, is the basic physical quantity used in radiobiology, radiology and radiation protection that quantifies energy deposition by any type of radiation in any absorbing material. The International System of Units (SI) of absorbed dose is joule per kilogram (J.kg-1) and is termed the gray (Gy). Absorbed dose, D, is defined as the quotient of mean energy, dÃŽÂ µ, imparted by ionising radiation in a volume element and the mass, dm, of the matter in that volume (Cember, 1969). The absorbed dose quantifies the energy imparted per unit mass absorbing medium, but does not relate this value to radiation damage induced in cells or tissue. The radiation weighted dose (HT) is used as a measure of the biological effect for a specific radiation quality on cells or tissue. It is calculated from equation where DT,R is the mean absorbed dose in a tissue T due to radiation of type R and wR is the corresponding dimensionless radiation weighting factor. The unit of radiation weighted dose is J.kg-1 and is termed the sievert (Sv). Radiation weighting factors are recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (International Commission on Radiological Protection [ICRP] Publication 103, 2007) and are derived from studies on the effect of the micro-deposition of radiation energy in tissue and on its carcinogenic potential. Linear Energy Transfer (LET) Ionizing radiation deposits energy in the form of ionizations along the track of the ionizing particle. The spatial distribution of these ionization events is related to the radiation type. The term linear energy transfer (LET) relates to the rate at which secondary charged particles deposit energy in the absorbing medium per unit distance (keV/ µm). LET is a realistic measure of radiation quality (Duncan, 1977). The LET (L) of charged particles in a medium is defined as the quotient of dE/dl where dE is the average energy locally imparted to the medium by a charged particle of specified energy in traversing a distance dl (Pizzarello, 1982). For high energy photons (x- and ÃŽÂ ³-rays), fast electrons are ejected when energetic photons interact with the absorbing medium. The primary ionization events along the track of the ionizing particle are well separated. This type of sparsely ionizing radiation is termed low-LET radiation. The LET of a 60Cobalt teletherapy source (1.3325 and 1.1732 MeV) is in the range of 0.24 keV/ µm (Vral et al., 1994). Neutrons cause the emission of recoil protons, alpha particles and heavy nuclear fragments during scattering events. These emitted charged particles interact more readily with the absorbing medium and cause densely spaced ionizing events along its track. The p66(Be) neutron beam used in this study has an ionization density of 20 keV/ µm and hence regarded as high-LET radiation. Auger electrons travel very short distances in the absorbing medium due to their low kinetic energies. All the energy of these particles is liberated in small volumes over short track lengths. Ionization densities are therefore very high, up to 40 keV/ µm this is comparable to high-LET alpha particles (Godu et al., 1994). Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) The degree of damage caused by ionizing radiation depends firstly on the absorbed dose and secondly on the ionization density or quality of radiation. Variances in the biological effects of different radiation qualities can be described in terms of the relative biological effectiveness (RBE). RBE defines the magnitude of biological response for a certain radiation quality compared to a distinct reference radiation. It is expressed in terms of the ratio (Quoc, 2009): Megavoltage X-rays or 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays are commonly employed as the reference radiation since these are standard therapeutic sources of radiation. Thus for an identical dose neutrons the biological effect observed would be greater, compared to 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays. The fundamental difference between these radiation modalities is in the spatial orientation or micro deposition of energy. Furthermore, RBE varies as a function of the dose applied increase in RBE is noted for a decrease in dose. By evaluating dose response curves (Fig 2), it is evident that the shoulder of the neutron curve is much shallower (smaller ÃŽÂ ²-value) compared to the reference radiation curve. Therefore changes in RBE are prominent over low dose ranges (Hall, 2005). Fig 2: Dose response curves based on the linear quadratic model demonstrate differences in RBE as a function of dose. Through evaluation of the biological effect curves it is apparent that the RBE for a specific radiation quality may vary. This is characterized by the type of tissue or cells being investigated, dose and dose rates applied oxygenation status of the tissue, energy of radiation and the phase of the cell cycle and inherent radiosensitivity of cells. The RBE increases with a decrease in dose, to reach a maximum RBE denoted RBEM this is calculated from the ratio of the initial slope of the dose response curves for both radiation modalities. RBE LET relationship For a given absorbed dose, differences in the biological response for several cell lines, exposed to different radiation qualities have been demonstrated (Slabbert et al., 1996). Cells exposed to a specified dose low LET radiation do not exhibit the same biological endpoint than those exposed to same dose high LET radiation. This since with low LET radiation a substantial amount of damage may be repaired because the energy density imparted to each ionization site is relatively low. The predominant mode of interaction for this radiation type is indirect through chemical attack from radiolysis of water. As the LET increases, for a specific dose, fewer sites are damaged but the sites that are located along the track of the ionizing particle are severely damaged because more energy is imparted. Thus the probability of direct interaction between the particle track and the target molecule increases with an increase in LET. The RBE of radiation can be correlated with the estimates of LET values. However, as the LET increases, exceeding 10keV/ µm it is no longer possible to assign a single value for the RBE. Beyond this LET, the shape of the cell survival curve changes markedly in the shoulder region compared to low-LET. Since RBE is a measure of the biological effect produced, comparison of the low-LET and high-LET curves will reveal that RBE increases with decreasing dose (Hall, 2005). The average separation in ionizing events at LET of about 100 keV/ÃŽÂ ¼m is equal to the width of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) double strand molecule (Fig. 3). Further increase in LET results in decreased RBE since ionization events occur at smaller intervals than DNA molecule strand separation (Fig. 3) and this energy imparted does not contribute to DNA damage. Fig 3: Average spatial distribution of ionizing events for different LET values in relation to the DNA double helix structure (Hall 2005). Cellular Radiosensitivity Tissue radiosensitivity models In 1906 the radiobiologists Bergonie and Tribondeau established a rule for tissue radiosensitivity. They studied the relative radiosensitivities of cells and from this could predict which type of cells would be more radiosensitive (Hall, 2005). Bergonie and Tribondeau realized that cells were most sensitive to radiation when they are: Rapidly dividing (high mitotic activity). Cells with a long dividing future. Cells of an unspecialised type. The law of Bergonie and Tribondeau was later adapted by Ancel and Vitemberger; they concluded that radiation damage is dependent on two factors: the biological stress on the cell. the conditions to which the cell is exposed pre and post irradiation. Cell division causes biological stress thus cells with a short doubling time express radiation damage at an earlier stage than slowly dividing cells. Undifferentiated rapidly dividing cells therefore are most radiosensitive (Hall, 2005). A comprehensive system of classification was proposed by Rubin and Casarett, cell populations were grouped into 4 categories based on the reproduction kinetics: Vegetative intermitotic cells were defined as rapidly dividing undifferentiated cells. These cells usually have a short life cycle. For example: erythroblasts and intestinal crypt cells and are very radiosensitive. Differentiating intermitotic cells are characterized as actively dividing cells with some level of differentiation. Examples include: meylocytes and midlevel cells in maturing cell lines these cells are radiosensitive. Reverting postmitotic cells are regarded as to not divide regularly and generally long lived. Liver cells is an example of this cell type, these cell types exhibit a degree radioresistance. Fixed postmitotic cells do not divide. Cells beloning to this classification are regarded to be highly differentiated and highly specialized in both morphology and function. These cells are replaced by differentiating cells in the cell maturation lines and are regarded as the most radioresistant cell types. Nerve and muscle cells are prime examples (Hall, 2005). Michalowski proposed a type of classification which divides tissues into hierarchical (H-type) and flexible (F-type) populations. Within this classification cells are grouped in 3 distinct categories: Stem cells, that continuously divide and reproduce to give rise to both new stem cells and cells that eventually give rise to mature functional cells. Maturing cells arising from stem cells and through progressive division eventually differentiate into an end-stage mature functional cell. Mature adult functional cells that do not divide Examples of H-type populations include the bone marrow, intestinal epithelium and epidermis; these cells are capable of unlimited proliferation. In F-type populations the adult cells can under certain circumstance be induced to undergo division and reproduce another adult cell. Examples include; liver parenchymal cells and thyroid cells. The two types represent the extremes in cell populations. It should be noted that most tissue populations exist between the extremes, these exhibit characteristics of both types where mature cells are able to divide a limited number of times. The sensitivity to radiation can be attributed to the length of the life cycle and the reproductive potential of the critical cell line within that tissue (Hall, 2005). Cell cycle dependent radiosensitivity As cells progress through the cell cycle various physical and biochemical changes occur (Fig. 4). These changes influence the response of cells to ionizing radiation. Variations in radiosensitivity for several cell types at different stages of the cell cycle has been documented (Hall, 2005). Following the law of Bergonie and Tribondeau that cells with high mitotic activity are most radiosensitive, it was found that cells in the mitotic phase (M-phase) of the cell cycle are most sensitive. Late stage gap 2 (G2) phase cells are also very sensitive with gap 1 (G1) phase being more radioresistant and synthesis (S phase) cells the most resistant (Domon, 1980). Fig. 4: Cell cycle of proliferating cells representing the different phases leading up to cell division. The G0 resting phase for cells that do not actively proliferate has been included since T-lymphocytes naturally occur in this phase (Hall, 2005). Nonproliferating cells, generally cells that are fully differentiated, may enter the rest phase G0 from G1 and remain inactive for long periods of time. Peripheral T-lymphocytes seldom replicate naturally and remain in G0 indefinately. Lymphocyte Radiosensitivity The hematopoietic system is very sensitive to radiation. Differential blood analyses are routinely employed as a measure of radiation exposure. This measurement is based on the sensitivity of stem cells and the changes observed in the constituents of peripheral blood due to variations in transit time from stem cell to functioning cell (Hall, 2005). It has been shown that lymphocytes, although they are resting cells (G0 phase) which do not actively proliferate nor do have a long dividing future hence do not meet the criteria of a radiosensitive cell type as described above are of the most radio sensitive cells. The reasons for their acute sensitivity cannot be explained (Hall, 2005). Furthermore two distinct subpopulations T-lymphocytes with respect to radiosensitivity were found in peripheral blood. The small T-lymphocyte which is extremely radiosensitive and disappears almost completely from the peripheral blood at doses of 500 mGy (Kataoka, 1974, Knox, 1982 and Hall, 2005). Cytogenetic expression of ionizing radiation induced damage The primary target in radiotherapy is the double helix deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule (Rothkam et al. 2009). This macro molecule contains the genetic code critical to the development and functioning of most living organisms. The DNA molecule consists of two strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. Each strand is made up of four types of nucleotides. A nucleotide consists of a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group and a nitrogen containing base. The nitrogen containing bases are adenine, guanine, thymine or cytosine. Base pairing between two nucleotide strands is universally constant with adenine pairing with thymine and guanine with cytosine (Fig. 5). This attribute permits effective single strand break repair since the opposite strand is used as a template during the repair process. The base sequence within a nucleotide strand differs; the arrangement of bases defines the genetic code. The double helix DNA molecule is wound up on histones and bou nd together by proteins to form nucleosomes. This structure is folded and coiled repeatedly to become a chromosome. Fig. 5: The double helix structure of a DNA molecule consists of two neucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. Figure modified from http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_22 by P Beukes. Ionizing radiation can either interact directly or indirectly with the DNA strand. When an ionization event occurs in close proximity to the DNA molecule direct ionization can denature the strand. Ionization events that occur within the medium surrounding the DNA produce free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide through radiolysis of water. Damage induced by ionizing radiation to the DNA include base damage (BD), single strand breaks (SSB), abasic sites (AS), DNA-protein cross-links (DPC), and double strand breaks (DSB) (Fig. 6). Fig. 6: Examples of several radiation induced DNA lesions. Figure modified from Best B (9) by P Beukes. Low-LET radiation primarily causes numerous single strand breaks, through direct and indirect interaction (Hall, 2005). Single strand breaks are of lesser biological importance since these are readily repaired by using the opposite strand as a template. High-LET radiation damage is dominated by direct interactions with the DNA molecule. Densely ionizing radiation has a greater probability to induce irreparable or lethal double strand breaks since energy deposition occurs in discrete tracks (Hall, 2005). The number of tracks will be fewer but more densely packed compared to low-LET radiation of equivalent doses. Several techniques to quantify chromosomal damage and chromatid breaks have been established. These range from isolating DNA and passing it through a porous substrate or gel (Hall, 2005) by applying an external potential difference too advanced techniques of visually observing and numerating chromosomal aberrations of interphase cells. Cytogenetic chromosome aberration assays of peripheral blood T-lymphocytes to assess radiation damage include but are not limited to: premature chromosome condensation (PCC) assay, metaphase spread dicentric and ring chromosome aberration assay (DCA), metaphase spread fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) translocation assay and cytokinesis blocked micronuclei (CBMN) assay (Fig. 7). Fig. 7: Different cytogenetic assays on peripheral T-lymphocytes for use in biological dosimetry. Figure modified from Cytogenetic Dosimetry IAEA, 2011. PCC occurs when an interphase cell is fused with a mitotic cell. The fusion causes the interphase cell to produce condensed chromosomes prematurely. Chromosomal aberrations can thus be analysed immediately following irradiation without the need for mitogen stimulation or cell culturing. Numeration of dicentrics in metaphase spreads has been used with great success to assess radiation damage in cells since the 1960s (Vral et al, 2010). The incidence of these aberrations follows a linear quadratic function with respect to the dose. Unstable aberrations like dicentrics or centric rings are lethal to the cell hence not passed on to daughter cells (Hall, 2005). In contrast translocations are stable aberrations; these are not lethal to the cell and passed on to daughter cells. Examination of translocations thus provides a long term history of exposure. Although the abovementioned techniques are very accurate and well described, the complexity and time consuming nature of the assays has stimulated the development of automated methods of measuring chromosomal damage. Micronuclei (MN) formation in peripheral blood T-lymphocytes lends itself to automation, since the outcome of radiation insult is visually not too complex with limited variables. DNA damage incurred from ionizing radiation or chemical clastogens induce the formation of acentric chromosome fragments and to a small extent malsegregation of whole chromosomes. Acentric chromosome fragments and whole chromosomes that are unable to engage with the mitotic spindle lag behind at anaphase (Cytogenetic Dosimetry IAEA, 2011). Micronuclei originate from these acentric chromosome fragments or whole chromosomes which are excluded from the main nuclei during the metaphase/anaphase transition of mitosis. The lagging chromosome fragment or whole chromosome forms a small separate nucleus visible in the cytoplasm of the cell. Image recognition software can thus be employed to quantify radiation damage by applying classifiers that describe cell size, staining intensity, cell separation, aspect ratio and cell characteristics when numerating MN frequency in BN cells. The classifiers are fully customizable depending on cell size, staining technique or cell type that will be used. Rationale for this study The principal objective of this study is to define RBE variations for high-LET radiation with respect to radiosensitivity. Specifically this is done for very high energy neutrons and Auger electrons. In general the response of different cell types vary much more to treatment with low-LET radiation compared to high-LET radiation (Broerse et al. 1978). Radiosensitivity differences have been demonstrated for different cancer cell lines (Slabbert et al. 1996) as well as various clonogenic mammalian cells (Hall, 2005) exposed to both high and low-LET radiation. In general there is an expectation and in certain cases some experimental evidence to support less variations in radiosensitivities of cells to high-LET radiation. Furthermore the ranking in the relative radiosensitivity of cell types changed for neutron treatments compared to exposure to X-rays (Broerse et al. 1978). To quantify the radiation risk of individuals exposed to cosmic rays or mixed radiation fields of neutrons and ÃŽÂ ³-rays, several experiments were conducted to ascertain biological damage induced by neutron beams of various energies (Nolte et al., 2007). Clonogenic survival data (Hall, 2005), dicentric chromosome aberrations (Heimers 1994) and micronuclei formation (Slabbert et. al 2010) have been followed. Chromosome aberration frequencies have been quantified and this represent radiation risk to neutron energies ranging from 36 keV up to 14.6 MeV (Schmid et al. 2003). To complement these studies additional measurements have been made for blood cells exposed to 60 MeV and 192 MeV quasi monoenergetic neutron beams (Nolte et al. 2007). Comparisons of RBE values obtained in these studies are shown in figure 1. Significant changes in the maximum relative biological effectiveness (RBEM) of these neutron sources are demonstrated as a function of neutron energy, with a maximum value of 90 at 0.4 MeV. RBEM drop to  ±15 for neutron energies higher than 10 MeV and it appears that the RBEM remain constant up to 200 MeV. The RBEM value of 47 -113 reported by Heimers et al. (1999) is not consistent with these observations. Fig. 1: RBEM values for neutrons of different energies after Nolte et al. (2007) The data shown in Fig. 1 was obtained by using the blood of a single donor. This to ensure consistency in the biological response for different neutron energies used in different radiation facilities in different parts of the world. Keeping the donor constant has the advantage that only a single data set for the reference radiation was needed. These measurements were done over several years. In all these studies, dicentric chromosome aberrations were followed. As informative as these investigations may be, it is doubtful if RBE values obtained from blood samples from a single donor are indeed representative for the wider population to state radiation weighting factors. It is unclear if RBE values for high energy neutrons will vary when measured with cells with different inherent radiosensitivities. Warenius et al. (1994) demonstrated that the RBE of a 62.5 MeV neutron beam increases with increase in radioresistance to 6 MV X-rays. Similarly Slabbert et al (1996) using a 29 MeV p(66)/Be neutron with an average energy of 29 MeV, noted a statistically significant increase in the RBE values for cell types with increased radioresistance to 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays. Although these investigators used 11 different cell types, few of these were indeed radioresistant to 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays. Close inspection of the data shows that the relationship between neutron RBE and radioresistance to photons disappear when the cell type with the highest resistance to ÃŽÂ ³-rays (Gurney melanoma) is removed from the data set Slabbert et al. 1996). In a follow up study the authors failed to demonstrate the relationship for a p(66)/Be neutron beam but such a relationship was demonstrated for a d14/Be neutron beam (Slabbert et al. 2000). It therefore appears that the relationship for RBE and radioresistance is dependent on the selection of cells used in the study as well as the neutron energy. Using lymphocytes Vral et al. (1994) demonstrated a clear reduction RBEM values for 5,5 MeV neutrons with an increase in the ÃŽÂ ±-values of dose effect curves obtained for 60Co ÃŽÂ ³-rays. This for lymphocytes obtained from six healthy donors. Using only four donors Slabbert et al. (2010) also demonstrated a relationship between RBEM neutrons and radiosensitivity to 60Co y rays. In the latter case the RBEM values are lower as can be expected since these investigators used a higher energy neutron source. Although a significant relationship between these parameters has been demonstrated by the investigators, the cohort of 4 donors in the study is very small. In fact 2 out of the 4 donors have different RBEM values but appear to have the same radiosensitivity. A study using larger number of donors with blood cells exposed to high energy neutrons is clearly needed. This in particular too verify the findings above indicating a different wR for donors of different sensitivity. The studies of RBE variations with neutron energy by Schmid et al., (2003), Nolte et al. (2005) and were conducted dicentric formations observed in metaphase spreads. It is known that more than six months were used to analyse the data for different doses for blood cells obtained from a single donor exposed to a single neutron energy. It follows that some method of automation to assist the radiobiological evaluation of cellular radiation damage is needed to quantify wR values as a function of radiosensitivity. Recently a semi-automated image analysis system, Metafer 4, this holds promise to test numerous donors for micronuclei formations Study to include more participants hence Metaferà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.

Martin Luther King Jr. Essay -- Biography Biographies King Luther Essa

Martin Luther King Jr. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. not only spoke with purpose but also with a style unlike any others. He was an inspirational speaker and a motivational leader. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., due to his importance in the civil rights movement of the 1950's and 1960's, motivated masses with his tremendous speeches and actions. Dr. King utilized his charisma and inspirational tactics to change the views and beliefs of a nation and to lead his people throughout their course of the civil rights movement. His personality consisted of every good characteristic needed of a leader. He was sensible at all times and his ability to clearly state his ideas and thoughts surrounding peace and equality in the United States. There were other rights movements going on at the same time that Dr. King was leading his peaceful rights movements. The Black Panthers and other militant groups, some under Malcolm X's philosophy, often time would question King's leadership. King spoke in an eloquent manner and his abil ity to persuade and inspire is rivaled by none. Martin Luther King Jr. lived an exemplary life and although it culminated in his assassination, the strides that Dr. King made for the civil rights movement and his numerous speeches that inspired a nation such as his â€Å"I have a dream†¦Ã¢â‚¬  speech, should never be forgotten nor ignored. The â€Å"I have a dream†¦Ã¢â‚¬  speech is one of the most powerful speeches ever and is a main focus of the life of the great Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King was born on January 15th, 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia. Martin was the second child in the family whose parents were the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King. He was the first son of the family, and his older sister was named Christine King. His actual real name was Michael Luther King, but â€Å"he was renamed "Martin" when he was about 6 years old† (Seattle). King's education is one of the normal sorts for a child growing up in the mid 1900's. He went through the regular educational system. Until his junior year, Martin Luther King was always an above average student, but once his junior year hit he received excellent marks on his college entrance exams which granted him admittance to Morehouse College an entire year earlier that expected. Also, Martin Luther King was so above average in his earlier years that he also skipped the ninth grade entirely... ...eaks in the same manner as always when he declares, â€Å"Somehow this madness must cease. We must stop now. I speak as a child of God and brother to the suffering poor of Vietnam. I speak for those whose land is being laid waste, whose homes are being destroyed, whose culture is being subverted. I speak for the poor in America who are paying the double price of smashed hopes at home and death and corruption in Vietnam. I speak as a citizen of the world, for the world as it stands aghast at the path we have taken. I speak as an American to the leaders of my own nation. The great initiative in this war is ours. The initiative to stop it must be ours† (King 1967). King was one for peace, whether it is on the home front, in the home, at the workplace, or around the world. He tried to limit the amount of trouble in the world. He was monumental in changing the views of a nation and helping to end segregation, inequality, and discrimination in the United States. Such a man who has caused such great change as King has, should be respected, admired, and given gratitude by all for his undying efforts to end the oppression that African Americans had been dealing with for hundreds of years.

Augustines God Vs. Epictetus God :: essays research papers

At first glance, I was immediatly inclined to argue in epictetus' favor, because it pains me to argue that Christianity is good for anybody. In the following paragraphs, i will contrast the God of Epictetus, and the God of Augustine, and in the end, my stand will be clear. Epictetus and Augustine both identify God on basic level. Epictetus says, "Where the essence of God is, there too is the essence of good. What is the essence of God?......Right Reason? Certainly. Here then, without more ado, seek the essence of good." He says strive for goodness, live in conformity with it, and you will find God. God is the vital force that creates all things and the cosmic intellegence that governs it from within. Augustine says: "Where I found truth, there i found my God, who is truth itself." He says strive for truth and understanding...In loving God, we love truth. Persons can come to know truth though inner experience and conviction, he holds that you can't obtain true knowledge without faith. you must have faith in God, who is the essence of all truth. Both philosophers address man's powerlessness in the face of God. Epictetus asserted that humans are basically limited and irrational beings, but that the universe, ruled by God through pure reason, is perfect. Because human beings can neither know nor control their destiny, they must cease striving for the attainment of worldly ends and pleasures and instead calmly accept the fact of their own powerlessness before fate. The only thing in a person's power is their response to events or outlook, namely, their morality. Augustine believed faith preceded reason. He believed people are good, but not perfect. But in Augustinean theology, each person is predestined to either heaven, or to fry like bacon, and there's nothing you can do about it. Salvation is a "free gift" with purchase, but only to every 7,000th caller. This is where i would think morality means squat. If you know God decided when you were born whether or not you were going to heaven, nothing you do makes any difference. You can step all over everbody, and run with scissors and it doesn't matter. If you go to hell, you were going there anyway. If you're going to heaven, you've got a few good stories to tell when you get there. On top of all this, Augustine says that no human mind can penetrate the mystery of of God's wisdom.

All City Choir :: essays research papers

What do you think about when you think of singing? Do you think about the latest rock or pop craze? Or do you think about some opera singer on stage? For me, when I think about singing, I think about All City Choir.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All City Choir is a try-out choir made up of about 60 kids in grades four through eight who’ve come together to sing. We also have three awesome conductors Wendy Gee, Wendy Masciotra (or who we call Mrs. M), and Eva Bettger and we sing from September through April in our two seasons: Christmas Season and Spring Season.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In All City Choir, we also learn how to sing properly in many different ways. The first thing you learn is how to breath properly. We’re not allowed to breath like this (with your shoulders), but naturally like this (with your stomach). This is what my conductors call â€Å"tummy power†. One of the warm ups the choir conductors make us do are these huge sighs that start from the top of your voice and go down to the bottom of your voice to warm up our vocal chords and get us to breath properly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another technique we have to learn in choir practice is we learn now to pronounce vowels and consonants correctly. An example of that would be pronouncing out â€Å"D†s as light â€Å"T†s. We also have to keep our mouth round and you cannot smile while you’re singing or else it ruins the effect of the vowels. One thing we always always must do is to pronounce the consonants loudly. What our conductors always make us do to help us remember this is to say â€Å"We LoVe ouR CoNSoNaNTS!†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The last, but probably one of the most important things we have to do when we sing, is to listen to each other and to sing with the mood of the music. If it is a soft song we are singing, then we can’t sing loudly in the piece, and if it is a song requiring a lot of energy, we have to be enthusiastic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One piece we sang this year was called â€Å"Reflections of a Lad at Sea†. Our conductor for the last movement (Mrs. Gee) was always nagging us to add more energy into the song. The last movement was called â€Å"Ghost Ship† which was a story about a ghost ship a sailor had seen one night.

Reflection of life Essay

America was put into a state of national depression in a matter of 24 hours. On October 29, 1929 millions of dollars was lost by the American economy in a time known as, the Wall Street Crash (this led to the Depression). Banks became bankrupt themselves and over 1/3 of the American population became redundant. The story ‘Of Mice and Men’ is set during the American Depression in the American countryside where both Lenny and George whom are ranch hands are going to their next job on Curly’s father’s farm. In the book, the economic depression is largely explored and has a great influence on the structure of the book. Both George and Lenny represented real – life ranch hands they had, ‘no family’ and ‘don’t belong no place. ’ Most men during the economic depression had little to go by in terms of money and work. Most ranchmen wasted their money, ’stake’ and had little going for them as only people who were educationally equipped and also financially sustained could live well. Ranchmen could only, ‘work up a stake and they go inta town and blow their stake, and the first thing you know they’re pundin’ their tail on some other ranch. They ain’t got nothing to look ahead to. ’ This became a reality in real – life as fewer jobs were permanent and the little pay that the ranchmen got was so small that the only way to spend it was on drink and brothels. The American Dream was depended on greatly by most of the population of America as at this time it acted like the thread of hope that could well have gotten many people out of the economically deprived state they seemed to be in. Both Lenny and George dreamed of owning a farm and living off, ‘the fatta the lan’. ’ This meant living for themselves and growing their own crops to live a self – sustainable independent life together. ‘I remember about the rabbits, George,’ this is a very significant line, it portrays the great hope that one can still have and that a dream can be achieved. The dream for Lenny and George was very humble. Lenny wanted to, ‘tend the rabbits’ and George hoped for a place to settle down. Lenny always remembers their dream as there was a chance it could have happened. During the depression many Americans became recluse to themselves, times were hard and what little could be gained was meant for an individual and their own loved ones, this isolation is represented when, ‘Candy spoke they both jumped as though they had been caught doing something reprehensible. ’ This shows that Lenny and George’s dream was meant for themselves not anybody else; they hoped to hide this from others so they can get their dream without others interfering and potentially messing it up. However Candy’s interference was worthwhile as it started to form their dream, ‘they fell into a silence. They looked at one another, amazed. This thing they had never really believed in was coming true. ’ This sheer excitement is a reflection of what small opportunities during this time made to an American’s life. Racism is greatly reflected in ‘Of Mice and Men,’ during the depression, racism was more evident in American society, especially against the black population who were racial segregated. Crooks the stable buck is a prime example of this as he has one of the lowest social statuses and is always referred to as, ‘nigger. ’ He is isolated from the rest of the ranch hands, â€Å"you don’t let me in your house to play cards, so why should I let you into my house? † This sentence reveals that this action bothers him so he does not want to interact with the people that are so socially unaware of the wrong they are doing. The ranch hands seem to be oblivious to the fact Crooks is a real person and even when Crooks was allowed to join in with the Christmas festivities, he was still caught up in some degradation as he became centred around a fight with one of the ranch hands. ‘Yes sir. Jesus, we had fun. They let the nigger come in that night. Little skinner name of Smitty took after the nigger. ’ Lastly, the lives of women are explored greatly. Women at this point were merely for show. There were no significant female leaders in America at this point and women like Curley’s wife were treated mainly as objects not real people. The life of Curly’s wife was very isolated. She was thought to cause trouble; this is because she was attractive and married to a man who wanted to pick a fight with anyone. A fight like that would easily arouse if a ranch hand handled Curley’s wife, â€Å"She’s gonna make a mess. They’s gonna be a bad mess about her. She’s a jail bait all set on the trigger. That Curley got his work cut out for him. Ranch with a bunch of guys on it ain’t no place for a girl, specially like her. † Curley’s wife is treated like trouble and because she is the only female on the ranch she is isolated. She has no female friends, men will fancy her, her husband has anger management issued and she has no morale guide. Women may have been treated more as trophy wives than they did before, â€Å"well – she got the eye,† this quote is said by Candy as a compliment. Overall Curly’s wife reflects closely to the prejudice that women could have faced but it was unlikely all women at the time would have been treated this badly, up to the point that she had been killed. In conclusion ‘Of Mice and Men’ is generally a thorough reflection of the period of time the book was written in. Both Black people and women were isolated in situations against white men who were largely dominant on a social front in the American economic depression.

Explain Why It Is Difficult to Talk Meaningfully About God Essay

Religious language is defined as the communication of ideas about God, faith, belief and practice. This definition makes it difficult to talk meaningfully about it as each of these words have concepts behind them and each and every individual interprets these differently, so religious language is different to everyday language, as it only denotes to an individual’s belief and faiths traditions. There are also many problems with religious language as a whole as it anthropomorphises God, by using terminology such as ‘Him’ ‘King’ and ‘Shepherd’ this is limiting and subjects God to have human qualities, which is against what The Bible wants to portray God as. Also another problem is that some think that religious language is cognitive, thus something must be known about God to talk meaningfully about it. Yet this creates the problem that religious statements are not about objective facts that can be proved true or false but are answers to questions that are unable to be validated, as they are based on objective facts that are open to cognition. These issues have led to religious believers to find ways in which they can talk about God in a meaningful way and the opposite as non-believers are searching for ways to render religious language meaningless. A group of philosophers called the logical positivists who as a group did not seek to understand how we gain knowledge of the external world, but how we use language to convey it. They believed that everything that can be verified is meaningful. Thus the verification principle was developed which stated that if it could be empirical tested by the five senses then it was meaningful, for example, a house is made of gingerbread, is meaningless as it can be proved false by taking stone samples from the house. Yet this causes a problem when talking about philosophical and religious aspects. The logical positivists thought it was pointless to talk about art, music, ethic and God as it could never be verified, so couldn’t be rendered true or false. Therefore it is meaningless as it is used to consider things beyond the human experience and this creates the ‘impossibility’ to understand to meaning of anything being said. A. J. Ayer; a logical positivist introduces two types of verification, strong and weak, to deal with the acceptation of scientific and historical propositions which are struggling to regard as meaningful or not. Strong verification is when there is absolute no doubt that a statement is true, as it is verified through sense, for example, ‘It is sunny today’. Yet weak verification occurs when some of the observations are not conclusively true or false, for example, ‘humans are made of atoms’ as this may be accepted by people who were at the time of the discovery, also future scientific statements are verified by the weak, as they will only be affirmed in the future not at present. The falsification principle created by Flew, stated that religious statements are meaningless as there nothing which can count against a religious believer, as they will not count or accept any of the evidence against their faith. Criticism ‘dies the death of a thousand qualifications’. For example Flew used the story of a father of a terminally ill child, prayed for God to make their child better, but the child died, the father qualifies this by saying it was God’s decision and maybe God’s love is ‘not merely human love’. Tillich believed that religious language was meaningful as it was conveyed through metaphors and symbols, however philosophers such as Paul Edwards thought that revelation could not be portrayed through the verification principle using empirical evidence therefore symbols don’t elude any factual knowledge, and are meaningless. Another critique of Tillich is that he stated that metaphors and symbols can be mistranslated and over time the original meaning may have been lost or forgotten therefore considering symbols meaningless as the meaning may have been changed from what was originally intended to represent. Also with the criticism that symbols can be interpreted in any way the individual wants to, this is demising the ultimate truth of reality it is trying to convey as it may point in a different direction as to which was also originally intended. Overall, the verification and the falsification principles argue that it is not possible to talk about God meaningful way as it is not possible to prove the existence of God of go verify any of the statements related to God.

Human Atrocities Essay

In the age of terrorism and nuclear wars, one of the greatest challenges that the human community is facing right now is to curb human rights violations that is occurring in almost all parts of the world. Even the citizens of the most democratic of nations are not spared from a certain degree of human rights violations or atrocities. This is a fact that all citizens of the world must face and bravely address. But the bigger question is this: who is responsible to curb human atrocities? More specifically, what can the international and local community do to intervene in such atrocities? To answer these questions, I believe we must first arrive at a definition of human rights violations or atrocities. According to Wikipedia, human rights refers to the universal rights of all human beings –regardless of race, color, nationality, religion gender and culture. From the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, it is basically based on inherent human dignity. Concurrently, human atrocities are violations of rights inherent to an individual. Normally, it is a term used when a government violates national or international law related to the protection of human rights. (Wikipedia, 2007) I am of the opinion that the international community has an inherent responsibility to stand up against any form of human rights abuse. International courts such as the International Criminal Court and international organizations such as the United Nations must be vigilant in protecting the rights of each human being. They must be the first to safeguard the interest of each person against any crime that may be done against them by either the military in their respective government or their government per se. For instance, the International Criminal Court is designed to bring into effect those peremptory norms of international law which safeguard such fundamental values as human dignity, the respect for life and limb of innocent persons, and the protection of ethnic, religious or racial groups. (Cassesse, 2007) In addition, the International Criminal Court must bring to justice any state which violates the dignity of its citizens. Doing so will uphold the most important international values, including the respect for human rights. Moreover, taking these steps will uphold and vindicate community rights. International non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch is an indication of what the international community can do in order to help curb the rise of human atrocities in any country. They have the resources to let the international community know of any wrongdoings being done in certain areas of the world. They can mobilize other local organizations to stand up against these atrocities by mobilizing public opinion. For instance, Amnesty International has worked and is further exerting its efforts for the protection of those detained because of their non-violent opinions and is seeking that Articles 18 and 19 of the UDHR be recognized globally. On the other hand, Human Rights Watch opposes basic human rights violations like death penalty and sex discrimination. It is an advocate of freedom relating to fundamental human rights like freedom of religion and the press. Another significant player in the bid to curb human atrocities is the local community. One cannot overemphasize on the power of the locals to intervene in such problems. Setting up international organizations will not solve the problems that are festering a country. Healing must come from within. The local community must always be on the look-out for any atrocities being done and must bravely report this to the authorities. As noted in the website of the Crimes of War Project, each international institution will need the support and cooperation of other institutions and, most significantly, of States themselves and local communities for that matter. For example, local community can be a source of vital information related to the patterns and mechanisms of the problems in the community that can help solve an international crisis. (Cassesse, 2007) I also believe that the power of media can be best utilized in addressing the realities of human rights violations. Since the media can effectively capture the attention of many people, the local and international media should make it their responsibility to report any news of wrongdoings or injustice. (Cassesse, 2007) This will also help in making each community –whether local or international—to be more vigilant in such cases. It must be understood that the measures to be taken by the international community will have no significant bearing without the support of the local community. No amount of intervention will be effective if the local community will not render its support. As noted by Antonio Cassesse in an article entitled â€Å"A Big Step Forward for International Justice†, the best response to atrocities lies in a prudent and well thought-out combination of various approaches both local and international. (Cassesse, 2007) He writes, â€Å"international criminal law is a branch of law that, more than any other, is about human folly, human wickedness, and human aggressiveness. It deals with the darkest side of our nature. It also deals with the way societies organize themselves to stem violence and viciousness as much as possible. Clearly, given the magnitude of the task, no single response may suffice. Instead, a broad array of responses, each tailored to specific circumstances, is needed effectively to fight international criminality. † (Cassesse, 2007) Hence, intervention of human atrocities is both a local and international responsibility –one that must be taken seriously and diligently by all societies in the world. Cited Works Cassesse, Antonio. crimesofwar. org. â€Å"A Big Step Forward for International Justice. † 7 March 2007. Wikipedia. â€Å"Human Rights. † 7 March 2007.